科学家百人箓 (one hundred most influential scientists of all times)

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格雷戈尔·約翰·孟德尔（德語：Gregor Johann Mendel，1822年7月20日－1884年1月6日）是一位奥地利科學家，天主教圣职人员。孟德尔出生於奧地利帝國（今天的捷克共和國）的西里西亞，是現代遺傳學的創始人。儘管幾千年來農民就知道動植物的雜交可以促進某些理想的性狀，但孟德尔在1856年至1863年之間進行的豌豆植物實驗建立了許多遺傳規則，現在被稱為孟德尔定律。

孟德尔研究了豌豆的七大特徵：植物高度，豆莢的形狀及顏色，種子的形狀及顏色，以及花的位置和顏色。以種子的顏色為例，孟德尔表示當一個真實遺傳的黃豌豆種子和一個真實遺傳的綠豌豆種子雜交時，它們的後代一定是產生黃色種子，但是在下一代中，豌豆種子以1綠色對3黃色的比率重新出現。為了解釋這種現象，孟德尔針對這些特徵創造了“隱性”和“顯性”兩個術語（在前面的例子中，在第一代中消失的綠色特徵是隱性的特徵，而黃色則是顯性特徵）。孟德尔在1866年出版了他的论文，说明某种看不见的因素（也就是基因 ）可预测並确定生物体的性状。

孟德尔的重大研究直到20世紀初（超過三十年）才被科學家們重新被人提起。埃里克·冯·切尔马克、许霍·德弗里斯，卡尔·科伦斯和William Jasper Spillman獨立地驗證了孟德尔的幾個實驗，從而迎來了遺傳學的時代。(zh.wikipedia.org/孟德爾)

Austrian botanist, teacher, and Augustinian prelate Gregor Mendel was the first to lay the mathematical foundation of the science of genetics, in what came to be called Mendelism.

Early Career

As his father’s only son, Mendel was expected to take over the small family farm, but he chose instead to enter the Altbrünn monastery as a novitiate of the Augustinian order, where he was given the name Gregor (his birth name was Johann).

The move to the monastery took him to Brünn, the capital of Moravia, where Mendal was introduced to a diverse and intellectual community. Abbot Cyril Napp found him a substitute-teaching position at Znaim (Znojmo, Czech Rep.), where he proved very successful. However, in 1850, Mendel failed an exam—introduced through new legislation for teacher certification—and was sent to the University of Vienna for two years to benefit from a new program of scientific instruction. Mendel devoted his time at Vienna to physics and mathematics, working under Austrian physicist Christian Doppler and mathematical physicist Andreas von Ettinghausen. He also studied the anatomy and physiology of plants and the use of the microscope under botanist Franz Unger, an enthusiast for the cell theory and a supporter of the developmentalist (pre-Darwinian) view of the evolution of life.

In the summer of 1853, Mendel returned to the monastery in Brünn, and in the following year he was again given a teaching position, this time at the Brünn Realschule (secondary school), where he remained until elected abbot 14 years later. These years were his greatest in terms of success both as teacher and as consummate experimentalist.

Experimental Period

In 1854, Abbot Cyril Napp permitted Mendel to plan a major experimental program in hybridization at the monastery. The aim of this program was to trace the transmission of hereditary characters in successive generations of hybrid progeny. Previous authorities had observed that progeny of fertile hybrids tended to revert to the originating species, and they had therefore concluded that hybridization could not be a mechanism used by nature to multiply species—though in exceptional cases some fertile hybrids did appear not to revert (the so-called “constant hybrids”). On the other hand, plant and animal breeders had long shown that crossbreeding could indeed produce a multitude of new forms. The latter point was of particular interest to landowners, including the abbot of the monastery, who was concerned about the monastery’s future profits from the wool of its Merino sheep, owing to competing wool being supplied from Australia.

Mendel chose to conduct his studies with the edible pea (Pisum sativum) because of the numerous distinct varieties, the ease of culture and control of pollination, and the high proportion of successful seed germinations. From 1854 to 1856 he tested 34 varieties for constancy of their traits. In order to trace the transmission of characters, he chose seven traits that were expressed in a distinctive manner, such as plant height (short or tall) and seed colour (green or yellow). He referred to these alternatives as contrasted characters, or character-pairs. He crossed varieties that differed in one trait—for instance, tall crossed with short. The first generation of hybrids (F1 ) displayed the character of one variety but not that of the other. In Mendel’s terms, one character was dominant and the other recessive.

In the numerous progeny that he raised from these hybrids (the second generation, F2), however, the recessive character reappeared, and the proportion of offspring bearing the dominant to offspring bearing the recessive was very close to a 3 to 1 ratio. Study of the descendants (F3) of the dominant group showed that one-third of them were true- breeding and two-thirds were of hybrid constitution. The 3:1 ratio could hence be rewritten as 1:2:1, meaning that 50 percent of the F2 generation were true-breeding and 50 percent were still hybrid. This was Mendel’s major discovery, and it was unlikely to have been made by his predecessors, since they did not grow statistically significant populations, nor did they follow the individual characters separately to establish their statistical relations.

Mendel’s approach to experimentation came from his training in physics and mathematics, especially combinatorial mathematics. The latter served him ideally to represent his result. If A represents the dominant characteristic and a the recessive, then the 1:2:1 ratio recalls the terms in the expansion of the binomial equation:  (A + a)2 = A2 + 2Aa + a2


Mendel realized further that he could test his expectation that the seven traits are transmitted independently of one another. Crosses involving first two and then three of his seven traits yielded categories of offspring in proportions following the terms produced from combining two binomial equations, indicating that their transmission was independent of one another. Mendel’s successors have called this conclusion the law of independent assortment.

Theoretical Interpretation

Mendel went on to relate his results to the cell theory of fertilization, according to which a new organism is generated from the fusion of two cells. In order for pure breeding forms of both the dominant and the recessive type to be brought into the hybrid, there had to be some temporary accommodation of the two differing characters in the hybrid as well as a separation process in the formation of the pollen cells and the egg cells. In other words, the hybrid must form germ cells bearing the potential to yield either the one characteristic or the other. This has since been described as the law of segregation, or the doctrine of the purity of the germ cells. Since one pollen cell fuses with one egg cell, all possible combinations of the differing pollen and egg cells would yield just the results suggested by Mendel’s combinatorial theory.

Mendel first presented his results in two separate lectures in 1865 to the Natural Science Society in Brünn. His paper “Experiments on Plant Hybrids” was published in the society’s journal, Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn, the following year. It attracted little attention, although many libraries received it and reprints were sent out. The tendency of those who read it was to conclude that Mendel had simply demonstrated more accurately what was already widely assumed—namely, that hybrid progeny revert to their originating forms. They overlooked the potential for variability and the evolutionary implications that his demonstration of the recombination of traits made possible. Mendel appears to have made no effort to publicize his work, and it is not known how many reprints of his paper he distributed.


全文可在 www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/hundred-scientists.pdf 下载。

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Rediscovery

In 1900, Dutch botanist and geneticist Hugo de Vries, German botanist and geneticist Carl Erich Correns, and Austrian botanist Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg independently reported results of hybridization experiments similar to Mendel’s, though each later claimed not to have known of Mendel’s work while doing their own experiments. However, both de Vries and Correns had read Mendel earlier—Correns even made detailed notes on the subject—but had forgotten. De Vries had a diversity of results in 1899, but it was not until he reread Mendel in 1900 that he was able to select and organize his data into a rational system. Tschermak had not read Mendel before obtaining his results, and his first account of his data offers an interpretation in terms of hereditary potency. He described the 3:1 ratio as an “unequal valancy” (Wertigkeit). In subsequent papers he incorporated the Mendelian theory of segregation and the purity of the germ cells into his text.

In Great Britain, biologist William Bateson became the leading proponent of Mendel’s theory. Around him gathered an enthusiastic band of followers. However, Darwinian evolution was assumed to be based chiefly on the selection of small, blending variations, whereas Mendel worked with clearly nonblending variations. Bateson soon found that championing Mendel aroused opposition from Darwinians. He and his supporters were called Mendelians, and their work was considered irrelevant to evolution. It took some three decades before the Mendelian theory was sufficiently developed to find its rightful place in evolutionary theory.

The distinction between a characteristic and its determinant was not consistently made by Mendel or by his successors, the early Mendelians. In 1909, Danish botanist and geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen clarified this point and named the determinants genes. Four years later, American zoologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan located the genes on the chromosomes, and the popular picture of them as beads on a string emerged. This discovery had implications for Mendel’s claim of an independent transmission of traits, for genes close together on the same chromosome are not transmitted independently. Today the gene is defined in several ways, depending upon the nature of the investigation. Genetic material can be synthesized, manipulated, and hybridized with genetic material from other species, but to fully understand its functions in the whole organism, an understanding of Mendelian inheritance is necessary. As the architect of genetic As the architect of genetic experimental and statistical analysis, Mendel remains the acknowledged father of genetics.

全文可在 www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/hundred-scientists.pdf 下载。


今年是孟德尔出生二百年記念但只有德國和南韩有發行了邮票。

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孟德尔在1856年至1863年之間進行的豌豆植物實驗建立了遺傳學的孟德爾定律。

豌豆（學名：Pisum sativum）为豆科豌豆属一年生或二年生攀缘草本植物，是重要的粮食和蔬菜，别称胡豆、麦豆、寒豆、小寒豆、淮豆、麻豆、青小豆、青斑豆、留豆、金豆、回回豆、麦豌豆、雪豆、毕豆、麻累、国豆、馬豆等。(zh.wikipedia.org/豌豆)

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路易·巴斯德（法語：Louis Pasteur，1822年12月27日－1895年9月28日），法国微生物学家、化学家，微生物学的奠基人之一。他以借生源说否定自然发生说（自生说）、倡导疾病细菌学说（胚种学说），以及发明预防接种方法以及巴氏杀菌法而闻名，為第一個創造狂犬病和炭疽病疫苗的科學家。他和费迪南德·科恩以及罗伯特·科赫一起开创了细菌学，被认为是微生物学的奠基者之一，常被稱为“微生物學之父”。(zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/路易·巴斯德)

French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur made some of the most varied and valuable discoveries in the history of science and industry. It was he who proved that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease; he who pioneered the use of vaccines for rabies, anthrax, and chicken cholera; he who saved the beer, wine, and silk industries of France and other countries; he who performed important pioneer work in stereochemistry; and he who originated the process known as pasteurization.

Early Career

Pasteur made his first important contribution to science on May 22, 1848, when he presented before the Paris Academy of Sciences a paper reporting a remarkable discovery—that certain chemical compounds were capable of splitting into a “right” component and a “left” component, one component being the mirror image of the other. His discoveries arose out of a crystallographic investigation of tartaric acid, an acid formed in grape fermentation that is widely used commercially, and racemic acid—a new, hitherto unknown acid that had been discovered in certain industrial processes in the Alsace region. Both acids not only had identical chemical compositions but also had the same structure; yet they showed marked differences in properties. Pasteur found that, when separated, the two types of crystals rotated plane polarized light to the same degree but in opposite directions (one to the right, or clockwise, and the other to the left, or counterclockwise). One of the two crystal forms of racemic acid proved to be identical with the tartaric acid of fermentation.

As Pasteur showed further, one component of the racemic acid (that identical with the tartaric acid from fermentation) could be utilized for nutrition by microorganisms, whereas the other, which is now termed its optical antipode, was not assimilable by living organisms. On the basis of these experiments, Pasteur elaborated his theory of molecular asymmetry, showing that the biological properties of chemical substances depend not only on the nature of the atoms constituting their molecules but also on the manner in which these atoms are arranged in space.

Research on Fermentation

In 1854 Pasteur became dean of the new science faculty at the University of Lille, where he initiated a highly modern educational concept: by instituting evening classes for the many young workmen of the industrial city, conducting his regular students around large factories in the area, and organizing supervised practical courses, he demonstrated the relationship that he believed should exist between theory and practice, between university and industry. At Lille, after receiving a query from an industrialist on the production of alcohol from grain and beet sugar, Pasteur began his studies on fermentation.

From studying the fermentation of alcohol he went on to the problem of lactic fermentation, showing yeast to be an organism capable of reproducing itself, even in artificial media, without free oxygen—a concept that became known as the Pasteur effect. He later announced that fermentation was the result of the activity of minute organisms and that when fermentation failed, either the necessary organism was absent or was unable to grow properly. Pasteur showed that milk could be soured by injecting a number of organisms from buttermilk or beer but could be kept unchanged if such organisms were excluded.

Spontaneous Generation and Pasteurization

As a logical sequel to Pasteur’s work on fermentation, he began research on spontaneous generation (the concept that bacterial life arose spontaneously), a question which at that time divided scientists into two opposing camps. Pasteur’s recognition of the fact that both lactic and alcohol fermentations were hastened by exposure to air led him to wonder whether his invisible organisms were always present in the atmosphere or whether they were spontaneously generated. By means of simple and precise experiments, including the filtration of air and the exposure of unfermented liquids to the air of the high Alps, he proved that food decomposes when placed in contact with germs present in the air, which cause its putrefaction, and that it does not undergo transformation or putrefy in such a way as to spontaneously generate new organisms within itself.

After laying the theoretical groundwork, Pasteur proceeded to apply his findings to the study of vinegar and wine, two commodities of great importance in the economy of France; his pasteurization process, the destruction of harmful germs by heat, made it possible to produce, preserve, and transport these products without their undergoing deterioration.

Research on Silkworms and Brewing

In 1865 Pasteur undertook a government mission to investigate the diseases of the silkworm, which were about to put an end to the production of silk at a time when it comprised a major section of France’s economy. To carry out the investigation, he moved to the south of France, the centre of silkworm breeding.Three years later he announced that he had isolated the bacilli of two distinct diseases and had found methods of preventing contagion and of detecting diseased stock.

In 1870 he devoted himself to the problem of beer. Following an investigation conducted both in France and among the brewers in London, he devised, as he had done for vinegar and wine, a procedure for manufacturing beer that would prevent its deterioration with time. British exporters, whose ships had to sail entirely around the African continent, were thus able to send British beer as far as India without fear of its deteriorating.

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Research on Vaccines

By 1881 Pasteur had perfected a technique for reducing the virulence of various disease-producing microorganisms, and he had succeeded in vaccinating a herd of sheep against the disease known as anthrax. Likewise, he was able to protect fowl from chicken cholera, for he had observed that once animals stricken with certain diseases had recovered they were later immune to a fresh attack. Thus, by isolating the germ of the disease and by cultivating an attenuated, or weakened, form of the germ and inoculating fowl with the culture, he could immunize the animals against the malady. In this he was following the example of the English physician Edward Jenner, who used cowpox to vaccinate against the closely related but more virulent disease smallpox.

On April 27, 1882, Pasteur was elected a member of the Académie Française, at which point he undertook research that proved to be the most spectacular of all—the preventive treatment of rabies. After experimenting with inoculations of saliva from infected animals, he came to the conclusion that the virus was also present in the nerve centres, and he demonstrated that a portion of the medulla oblongata of a rabid dog, when injected into the body of a healthy animal, produced symptoms of rabies. By further work on the dried tissues of infected animals and the effect of time and temperature on these tissues, he was able to obtain a weakened form of the virus that could be used for inoculation.

Having detected the rabies virus by its effects on the nervous system and attenuated its virulence, he applied his procedure to man; on July 6, 1885, he saved the life of a nine-year-old boy, Joseph Meister, who had been bitten by a rabid dog. The experiment was an outstanding success, opening the road to protection from a terrible disease.

全文可在 www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/hundred-scientists.pdf 下载。

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今年巴黎六月郵展發行了兩枚郵票，又是三十年代的郵票圖案。極限片将于下星期日上传。

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1867年-1888年巴斯德任高等师范学校生理化学实验室主任。路易·巴斯德于1881年著手研究狂犬病，1885年以減毒的方式（the method for attenuatio of virulent microorganisms）研製出減毒狂犬病疫苗，巴斯德的名聲引來大西洋彼岸的求助，當時美國新澤西幾名男童遭到感染狂犬病的犬隻攻擊，性命垂危。這起新聞引起美國民眾的重視，自發集資協助這幾名男童跨越大西洋至巴黎，尋求巴斯德的救助，而巴斯德也不負眾望，利用他研究出的狂犬病疫苗，在同年7月6日治療一受狂犬咬傷的9歲兒童。(zh.wikipedia.org/路易·巴斯德)

阿尔伯特·埃德费尔特 (Albert Edelfelt) 的这幅著名画作中，路易·巴斯德 (Louis Pasteur) 在观察一只狂犬病兔子的脊髓，它悬浮在干燥钾盐晶体上方。这是获得狂犬病疫苗的过程。埃德费尔特是路易·巴斯德的好朋友， 这幅肖像画于 1885 年 4 月中旬开始，埃德费尔特从一开始就考虑在他的工作环境中代表巴斯德 。巴斯德用一个更大的瓶子代替了他手里拿着的一个小瓶子，里面装着一块从狂犬病兔子身上取出的脊髓。代表巴斯德的画作在 1886 年的沙龙上展出。 这幅创新的肖像很快在媒体上被转载，因为捕捉了科學家全神贯注于他们的工作。

今年巴黎六月郵展發行的兩枚郵票是根据三十年代的郵票圖案。在阿尔伯特·埃德费尔特 (Albert Edelfelt) 的这幅著名画作中，路易·巴斯德在实验室工作, 巴斯德的实验室在巴黎。巴黎邮戳是正確的。

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路易斯·爱德华·富尼埃 (Louis Édouard Fournier) 的这幅著名画作中，路易·巴斯德 (Louis Pasteur) 在实验室工作, 巴斯德的实验室在巴黎。巴黎邮戳是正確的。

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1994年，Daryl Kibble 展出“极限科学” 得到大镀金。 后来他与 Daniel Olsen 的大镀金展品合并，但并没有得到預期的金獎 (原因是相关的極限規則直到十多年後才修訂)。 因此，十多年前他向中国出售了许多早期極限展品。放弃极限后，他获得了专题的金奖。

对于科学方法是否可以应用在研究早期極限邮政史,他是猜对了。 然而，直到我在 2020 年开始这样做, 之前的研究并不是由任何受过科学训练的人士在进行。我欢迎其他科学家加入我的研究行列。

這是《极限前驱品家族起源》(on the origins of maximum card precursor families by means of concordance selection) 115 张幻灯片之一 。 將於明年前发布在 youtube 上。

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敬请观看 极限视频 《科学先驱》在 https://youtu.be/dYrUKxflHHo

本视频 介绍 34位被列入大英百科全书教育出版社出版的《有史以来最有影响力的100位科学家》的科学家。

两个例子说明科学与信仰之间的区别。

关于第一枚极限片诞生故事的传统说法如下：一位旅行埃及的遊客，為了給在法國的朋友捎個音訊，在一個偶然的機會下，買了枚金字塔風景明信片，同時將金字塔郵票貼在图案面上，寄了出去，写了法文 Timbre côté vue或 TCV在明信片的地址那面, 告诉郵務員郵資已付，表明邮票貼在明信片的图案面上, 请盖邮戳在邮票上。於是就无意形成了第一枚金字塔极限明信片。相信这个故事就是信了自然發生教。在显微镜发明之前，很多人相信自然發生，認為現今的生物體是在無機物中自然產生的，此理論目前不被科學界所接受。

我不相信没有真凭实据的胡說八道, 我相信极限可以科学化，极限是实验科学，极限是数据数学。新发现简单地总结如下： 第一代前驱品为TVA (Timbre côté vue et adresse 郵票貼在图案和地址同一面) 。不是无意形成 。第二代前驱品是TCV (Timbre côté vue 郵票貼在图案面上)  不是TCA (Timbre côté adresse 郵票貼在地址面上)。不是无意形成。详情请见我的文章和视频。如果您有替代假设，请展示您的基于证据的理论。

第二個例子是日本政府将辐岛核污水排入太平洋。你相信政治家的(日本)鬼(子)话还是你想看到科学家和专家检查的数据？我很生气因为我喜欢食海鲜！

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阿斯克勒庇厄斯（希腊语：Ἀσκληπιός，拉丁語：Asclepius），是古希腊神话中的医神，在古罗马神话中被称为埃斯库拉庇乌斯（拉丁语：Aesculapius），他是太阳神阿波罗之子，形象為手持蛇杖。(zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/阿斯克勒庇俄斯)

希波克拉底（古希臘文：Ἱπποκράτης，前460年－前370年），為古希臘伯里克利時代之醫師，約生於公元前460年，後世人普遍認為其為醫學史上傑出人物之一。在其所身處之上古時代，醫學並不發達，然而他卻能將醫學發展成為專業學科，使之與巫術及哲學分離，並創立了以之為名的醫學學派，對古希臘之醫學發展貢獻良多，故今人多尊稱之為「醫學之父」。(zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/希波克拉底)

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亚里士多德（希臘語：Αριστοτέλης，Aristotélēs，前384年－前322年3月7日），古希腊哲学家，柏拉圖的學生、亚历山大大帝的老師。他的著作牽涉許多學科，包括了物理學、形而上學、詩歌（包括戲劇）、音乐、生物學、經濟學、動物學、邏輯學、政治、政府、以及倫理學。和柏拉圖、蘇格拉底（柏拉圖的老師）一起被譽為西方哲學的奠基者。亞里士多德的著作是西方哲學的第一個廣泛系統，包含道德、美學、邏輯和科學、政治和形而上学。(zh.m.wikipedia.org/亚里士多德)

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列奥纳多·达·芬奇（意大利語：Leonardo da Vinci；儒略历1452年4月15日－1519年5月2日)，又譯达文西，全名李奧納多·迪·瑟皮耶罗·达·芬奇（Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci，意为「文西城皮耶羅先生之子──李奧納多」），是意大利文藝復興時期的一个博學者：在繪畫、音樂、建築、數學、幾何學、解剖學、生理學、動物學、植物學、天文學、氣象學、地質學、地理學、物理學、光學、力學、發明、土木工程等領域都有顯著的成就。这使他成为文艺复兴时期人文主义的代表人物，也使得他成為文藝復興時期典型的藝術家，也是歷史上最著名的畫家之一，與米開朗基羅和拉斐尔並稱文艺复兴三杰。(zh.m.wikipedia.org/列奥纳多·达·芬奇)

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安德雷亚斯·维萨里 （拉丁語：Andreas Vesalius，荷蘭語：Andries van Wesel；1514年12月31日於布鲁塞尔－1564年10月15日於扎金索斯）是一名文藝復興時期的解剖学家、医生，他编写的《人体的构造》（拉丁語：De humani corporis fabrica）是人体解剖学的权威著作之一。維薩里被认为是近代人体解剖学的创始人。
在帕多瓦大學博士學位毕业后，他留在帕多瓦教授外科和解剖学。同时，他还被邀请到博洛尼亚大学和比萨大学做演讲。演讲的对象都学习过盖伦的理论——一般都是通过讲授者聘请外科医生对动物的解剖来进行说明。没有人试图去验证一下盖伦的理论：它们被认为是无懈可击的。但维萨里做的与众不同。他使用解剖工具亲自演示操作，而学生则围在桌子周围观察学习。面对面的亲身体验式教学被认为是唯一可靠的教学方式，也是对中世纪实践的一个重大突破。
1541年，维萨里在博洛尼亚发现盖伦所有的研究结果都不是源于人体而是动物的解剖：因为古代罗马人体解剖是被禁止的，所以盖伦选用了巴巴利猕猴来代替，还坚称两者在解剖学上是相近的。于是，维萨里对盖伦的文章做了校正，并开始撰写自己的著作。在维萨里发现之前，医学界从没有注意到这一点，并且盖伦的著作一直是研究人类解剖学的基础。尽管如此，仍有人坚持采信盖伦的论点，并且嫉恨维萨里取得了这样瞩目的成果。
在文藝復興時期，很多醫生把屍體解剖，找出人生病的真正原因（因當時的教會認為人生病的原因是神懲罰人的罪，但人們受人文主義（humanism）影響，開始質疑其信仰及思想）。而维萨里則在1543年寫的《人體的構造》（De humani corporis fabrica）。這本書詳細地介紹和研究解剖學，更附有他親手繪畫、有關人體骨骼和神經的插圖。這也是他被稱為“解剖學之父”的原因之一。
1543年，维萨里邀请约翰内斯·奥坡瑞努斯帮助他印刷七卷本的《人体的构造》一书，这本关于人类解剖学的划时代巨著邀请了提香的弟子让·范·卡尔卡做插画。几周后，维萨里又为学生重新出版了一本节录，《安德里亚·维萨里-人体的构造-目录梗概》。
尽管维萨里不是第一个进行实际解剖的人，但是他的作品的价值仍是毫无疑义的——高度详细和精细的版画，即使是现在仍然被认为是经典的。而当《构造》一书出版时，维萨里只有30岁。(zh.m.wikipedia.org/安德雷亚斯·维萨里)

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在1491-92年的冬季学期，哥白尼以Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia的名字和兄弟安德鲁一同被克拉科夫大学所录取（也就是如今的亞捷隆大學）。哥白尼就读的是艺术系，时间从1491年秋天到大致1495年的夏天或秋天。当时正是克拉科夫大学的天文学和数学学院如日中天的时候，这里的学习经历为他将来在数学方面所取得的成绩奠定了基础。按照后来Jan Brożek的一种可靠说法，哥白尼成为了阿尔伯特·布鲁楚斯基（Albert Brudzewski）的学生，后者在当时（1491年）是一名亚里士多德哲学教授，但是他在大学校外私下里教授天文学；哥白尼就此熟悉了布鲁楚斯基广泛阅读的评论文章，参加了许多讲座。

哥白尼在克拉科夫的学习经历帮他奠定了数学天文学方面的坚实基础，校方教授的课程包括数学、几何学、几何光学、宇宙结构学、天文学的理论和计算等，使他掌握了亚里士多德有关哲学和自然科学的著作《形而上学》（De coelo, Metaphysics），这些都激发了他的学习兴趣，并实现对人文文化的精深把握。在克拉科夫求学的过程中，哥白尼通过参加大学讲座以及独立阅读著作来拓展自己的知识，诸如古希腊数学家欧几里德和阿拉伯天文学家哈里·阿本拉吉（英语：Haly Abenragel）的著作，阿方索星表（英语：Alfonsine Tables），德国数学家、天文学家雷格蒙塔努斯（约翰·缪勒）的《方位册》（Tabulae directionum），等等。在这期间的阅读资料，其中还标注有他最早的科学笔记，现在部分保存在瑞典乌普萨拉大学。在克拉科夫，哥白尼开始搜集大量的天文学方面的藏书，后在17世纪50年代的大洪水时代，被瑞典当作战利品运往本国，现在瑞典乌普萨拉大学图书馆收藏。

哥白尼在克拉科夫的四年学习生活为他重要才能的发展发挥了重要作用，并促使他在天文学的两大流行体系亚里士多德的同心球面学说和托勒密的偏心圆和本轮理论进行逻辑比较分析，对之进行扬弃之后，构建出哥白尼自己对于宇宙结构的理论的第一步。(zh.m.wikipedia.org/尼古拉·哥白尼)

克拉科夫大學院（波蘭語：Collegium Maius）的哥白尼纪念碑。克拉科夫大學院是亞捷隆大學最古老的建築，其歷史可以追溯至14世紀。雅盖隆大学图书馆建于1364年，现有藏书650万部，是波兰最大的图书馆之一。藏有大量中世纪手稿，其中包括哥白尼《天体运行论》的原稿。(zh.m.wikipedia.org/克拉科夫大學院)&(zh.m.wikipedia.org/亞捷隆大學)